Peculiarities of Promotion in B2B and B2C

?Leysan Zigangirova, group 1409, Marketing Department Relative importance of promotional tools in consumer and industrial market. Figure 4. 1 shows proportion of promotional tools in b2c and b2b market. It’s evident, that advertising is on the first place in promoting consumer goods. Producers of these goods try to cover mass audience and advertising is an optimum variant. Almost all the population is in touch with media, including TV, radio and newspapers, or can see billboards or advertising placards, so the information about product or service can easily achieve them. Of course, here comes the question why personal selling is not so popular here. First of all, it’s because of narrow cover. Personal selling is aimed to each customer, so it’s impossible to communicate with everybody. And secondly, the proportion between price and result makes this tool irrational: vast sums of money will be spent out, but the there will be no confidence in sales increasing. On the other hand is industrial or b2b market, where personal selling is on the top. And this result is understandable. The target audience here is not the man in the street, but representative of business, the professional, so it’s better to use personal approach. And advertising campaigns are not so effective here: advertising reaches a mass audience, personal or direct selling focuses on one customer at a time. Besides, industrial products and services are more sophisticated and require detailed explanation, customized application, or careful negotiation over price and payment plan. The salesperson helps the customer identify problems, works out a variety of solutions, assists the buyer in making decisions, and provides arrangements for long-term service. Does advertising do the same? Unfortunately, doesn’t. And in b2b market all of the enumerated points are key to the success in business. If we continue examination of promotional instruments, we will see that usage of other tools is the same. Both b2b and b2c use sales promotion in order to increase sales volume, as an addition to personal selling and advertising. And also public relations are on the lowest position as the most unpopular tool. This can be explained by the result of PR: it builds image, reputation, not sales. Very few companies use this form of promoting, because most of them put profit on the first place, and the image of the company on the second. Only after several years of stable position in the market they turn to PR. So, to make a conclusion, I want to say that it’s important to remember that choosing promotional tool depends on the market, where you do business. Businessmen should take it into consideration, if they don’t want to flow out their money without worthy result.

Sustainable Lifestyle

Sustainable living is the maintaining of one's life or lifestyle at a steady level without exhausting resources or causing damage to the environment. It is a lifestyle that assumes continuous economic growth without irreversibly damaging the environment. Sustainable living is also a lifestyle that reduces an individual's use of natural resource. Having a sustainable lifestyle brings about change especially in the society.It provides us with the energy we need to be a positive force in the world. It is also about taking control of our own lives positively by getting what we need and to what we want, changing direction of the world and not destroying it, setting an intention that fosters and empowers the things we care about, which in the end gives us strength, clarity and purpose to live a better life. Living a sustainable lifestyle is more about common sense & making practical choices.Because sustainable living is all about making choices in the modern world, it is easily accomplishe d by breaking down the requirements of living into the following categories: Shelter, Food, Water, Power, Transportation and Waste. These categories represent all the areas in which sustainable living choices can be made. When it comes to Shelter, smaller homes are preferable as it creates a more fulfilling sustainable lifestyle both Indoor and outdoor. Smaller homes need less utility payment because fewer materials went Into its construction and therefore fewer materials are needed to maintain It.There would be fewer belongings, less debt and greater freedom for those who choose It. As for food, reducing consumption is the starting point towards achieving a sustainable lifestyle. According to Victoria Klein, the Author of 48 things to know about Sustainable living, â€Å"The mantra for sustainable living is: Reduce, Reuse and Recycling†. This way, we have the capacity to endure, save time, spend money wisely, and reduce waste and electricity. We would also have the ability t o simplify our everyday life.One of the challenges of living a sustainable life Is to find balance In our personal lives because for many people, sustainability Is all about balance. To find balance In our world, we must find balance In ourselves and we begin by taking care of ourselves, then our families and environment. Sustainable living Is very Important In the world we live In because there Is only a limited amount of natural sources on the earth and when It runs out, there would be none left.For example, you don't need to take your car If you are not going somewhere far, you don't need to throw away your plastic bottles when you know It can still be used (by recycling), you don't need to waste electricity during the day when you know there Is solar power (It Is sustainable)available. Changing your lifestyle to be more sustainable offers opportunities to save more money, help Increase the quality of home and possessions and contribute to a healthier style of living on the Earth .Living sustainable meaner that whatever we do has the least Impact, the least waste and Is a cycle and meaner that can be repeated Indefinitely without cumulative damage to the world. We need to eat the right foods, educate ourselves (know little of everything) and make friends. A sustainable life Is one In which physical and spiritual health provides us with energy to affect positive change In our society. In order for us to live a sustainable life, we need to find something positive that Inspires us. Positive reinforcement to the g things that inspire us would serve as a boost when maintain a sustainable lifestyle.

Centex Corporation Firm Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Centex Corporation Firm Analysis - Essay Example Decrease in the customer's affordability for initiating buying inventory. Customers were in a mood to lay off the inventory to overcome the mortgage demands. The high inventory costs to bear with have depleted the market from selling. Thus, there were very few takers for the inventory and lots of unsold inventory was left with no takers. The decrease in buying and selling was due to low confidence levels of the customers who were affected by the adverse market conditions. Due to the financial markets turmoil, customers are ambiguous to venture out to buy new properties. Many prospective customers who are willing to buy new homes were made to shelve their ideas as they were unable to dispose their existing properties. Due to severe mortgage lending crunch and financial institutions tightening the screws to lend loans has created difficult times for customers to take loans. The above depicted issues with respect to customers have affected Centex's housing. Revenues of centex decreased primarily due to decreases in units closed, and the revenues are largely offset by increases in discounts and lower prices experienced. The total closing numbers on sales decreased by 18 percent and total revenue decreased by 32 percent compare to 2007 and 2006 (builder 100). High competitions in the market as customers were trying to sell off their old inventory due to mortgage debt pressures.

The Judiciary role in the Criminal Justice System Term Paper

The Judiciary role in the Criminal Justice System - Term Paper Example The criminal justice system is comprised of three major components that work together in tandem to see the criminal justice process through from beginning to end (Torres, eHow.com). The three major components in the criminal justice system are: 1) the law enforcement, 2) the courts, and 3) the corrections. The law enforcement component is considered the head of the system since its divisions are the ones responsible for finding and capturing individuals who defies the constitution. The judiciary comes in next as they make sure that offenders or suspects are given fair trial until proven guilty. They are the ones who balance the evidences submitted by the prosecution and defense for their own arguments. They are the ones who face the dilemma on deciding the verdict for certain circumstances. â€Å"In the courtroom judges have a vital role in creating a forum where those finding themselves in the justice system recognize the Court provides the framework within which individuals will g et protection, redress and resolution of disputes and conflicts that cannot be effectively and peacefully settled elsewhere.† It is also said that the judiciary's foremost role as the third branch of the government is to defend and uphold the United States Constitution and assure the rule of law prevails (Ladner, 2000). The judiciary’s role in the criminal justice system is to be fair, firm and calm. Fair because they will be hearing 2 sides of a story which they need to decide who is telling the truth. They should be unbiased and not let their emotions dictate what they should think towards certain issues. Everybody should be treated equally. Sometimes amongst all the factors that are present, the emotional factor is the one that affects the fairness of a judge which should not be the case. This is where the judges or jurors should be firm on their decisions. They should disregard their emotions and be firm on their decision. This should be done so that they can uphold what is in the constitution and not give verdicts that are just dictated by one’s emotions or gut feel. Calmness should also be present so that information would be properly presented and discussed. The judiciary makes sure that the constitution is being implemented correctly. The constitution is not to be used to abuse anybody or to be violated by anyone. Seems to be easy yet it is a tough job. There are certain people who believe that they are above the law. The judiciary system is the one who put their egos back to the ground and make them realize that they are not above the law. A member of the judiciary should always be like Themis, the Roman goddess of Justice, blindfolded so that political or class status of the people involved in a trial cannot affect the decisions made. In addition, equality should be strictly practiced as symbolized by the scales that the statue is holding. Let the facts that are presented be the ones put on the scale to judge whether one is guilty or not. It is not the role of the judiciary to be on one side against the other. Upholding the constitution is believed to be the primary role of the judiciary. Reform starts in the judiciary. It may convict or acquit suspects from the most celebrated cases to the simplest ones. Yet the main role remains the same which is making sure that what has been written by law should be followed by

An Investigation Into a Contemporay Health Issue Essay

An Investigation Into a Contemporay Health Issue - Essay Example The ‘Right to Die’ group argues that euthanasia is ethically wrong and is driven by some socio-ethical issues that are propagated by the society. Euthanasia is usually done on the critically ill, physically disabled and other people who are considered a burden to the society. The group cites that the debate on ethical implications of the process has a psychological effect on those who are targeted. This may affect and influence the affected to think in terms of euthanasia as the only way to become independent of their problems. While this may seem like voluntary euthanasia, although it has been aided by depression of the victim, the likelihood of people committing involuntary euthanasia in the future is very real. The argument countered fro by the proponents of Right to Life, questions the ethicality behind killing disabled people in the interests of the society. Governments have a duty to protect the fundamental human right to life, which will be seriously hindered by e uthanasia. The argument that people with disabilities are a burden to the society and should therefore have their lives terminated evokes a feeling of society riddled in unethical and immoral behaviors (Cauldwell, 2007). On the other hand, terminating someone’s life on the basis of incapacitation violates people’s right to life. The unethical nature of euthanasia has been experienced in many cases where people are killed through decisions taken by medical professionals and interested parties. If such a trend continues, the professional ethics and moral obligations will be eroded completely. The Futile-Care Theory and Health Rationing have been used to make euthanasia look ethical and moral. In some countries, healthcare professionals are prohibited from helping patients with certain levels of problems. While in other countries like Holland, euthanasia is legal. Even without the patients’ knowledge, the healthcare professionals result to euthanasia. This deprives people of their

Operations and IT Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Operations and IT Management - Essay Example This will significantly reduce conflicts when we come to implementation or operations of the managers. The information lifecycle approach has strengthened customer relationship management, which is a widely applied strategy for running a company’s relations with its customers, clients as well as sales prospects. It encompasses the use of technology to organize, computerize, and harmonize business processes-mainly sales activities, but, in addition to those for marketing, client service, along with technical support (Fitzsimmon, 2005). The predominant goals are to find, attract, and convince new clients, nurture and lock in the customers, which the company already had before, entice previous clients back into the fold, and minimize advertising costs and client services. Customer relationship management illustrates a company’s broad business plan including client interface sections as well as other departments. Computing and valuing customers’ correlation is crucial to implementing this strategy. This has tremendously reduced conflicts between operations managers and information technology managers, due to specialization and division of areas of jurisdiction within the business system. Information privacy and data security; operations managers and information technology managers are now working concurrently to ensure that there is information security. Given the fact that security is an area of concern in the business sector, the two bodies have no choice but, to pull together as a team in considering the desire for information and data privacy, as well as the legislative and cultural standards. Some clients would like their pertinent information to remain their secret, and not to allow any other unauthorized persons, without their permission access to it. Information lifecycle approach enables business firms to keep different business documentation for a different

Determining causes and effects Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Determining causes and effects - Essay Example It is a fact without doubt that indeed most of the campus students spend a substantive time on campuses leading very stressful lives. Because students have to establish a balance between their studies, examinations, extra-curriculum activities, and some work, it is clearly an aspect of stress. Ideally, stress permeates from numerous aspects in the society, with stress among the teenagers, most especially in those in campus taking the greatest percentage. Despite the fact that stress has become part of human life, stress could be minimized through numerous ways. Indeed, stress in colleges and many teenagers is a significant problem considering the effects associated with it. Based on such a perspective, this paper discusses pressure of academic performance and finances as the causes of stress on college students, and a look into their effects. Stress among college students results from numerous causes, each of which has different effects depending on the circumstances involved. Of all the causes, the pressure of the academic problem is usually the greatest contributing factor to the numerous instances of stress among the campus students (Heidenreich, 2009). Whenever every student goes to campus, one of the primary requirements of the teenager is to perform excellently in the academics. Equally, parents usually encourage their children to have the best of performance in their studies. However, little is always told on how to achieve the academic excellence status.

Corporate finance 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5750 words

Corporate finance 2 - Essay Example Last but not the least the third group lauds large dividends as positive signal to shareholders that all is well. So where does the modern shareholder satisfaction stand in relation to dividend policies? Another query which relates to this discussion is how signaling models attempt to explain the proportion of equity retained by an entrepreneur, the type of financing used for an investment and the amount of equity issued or repurchased. The issue then pertains to information asymmetry (availability of information).Firstly if we look at Dividend policy it was well put by Black 1976 (cited by Frankfurter 2002), â€Å"That the nearly universal policy of paying substantial dividends is the primary puzzle in the economics of corporate finance.† Thus the proposition leads us to the query whether shareholders should be paid sufficient dividends whether or not they are making sizeable profits on the stock market. Over the last half century academics have spoken in great depth over this issue and suggested conflicting theoretical frameworks to explain their point of view.(Frankfurter 2002).The problem is that these assertions often lack empirical depth to the criticism and stumble upon self contradictions in an attempt to explain corporate dividend behaviour.(Frankfurter 2002).Today academic opinion is divided as to whether dividends are attractive to shareholders and will have a positive impact in stock prices.(Fran kfurter 2002 )Another school of thought contends that prices are negatively correlated with dividend payout levels.(Frankfurter 2002).The third view is that firm dividend policy is irrelevant in stock price valuation. (Frankfurter 2002).My paper will discuss and try to reconcile all these views towards a better theory and understanding of this issue.These views are best summed up as being based upon,the tax effect ( Litzenberger and Ramaswamy

Arts pictures description Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Arts pictures description - Essay Example We can also see that the dress she is wearing has various bright colors, which dictate the entertaining tone of the picture. At the same time, the young woman is covering her hair with decorated attire manifest the presence of peace and the absence of conflict in the picture environment. In addition, the photo is on a white wall, which further promotes peace and equally suggests lack of sadness in the picture environment. All these characteristics create a calm atmosphere in the picture. Additionally, at the bottom left corner of the picture, I can see an electricity socket, which suggests that the picture is of a room with electricity. Indeed, I can also see the shadow of the photo lying below the photo on the wall, which suggests that there is a source of light coming from above the photo. Notably, the background of the picture on the wall is dark which relevantly complements the bright colors of the young woman’s clothing. The dark color on the background mixes with the bright colors on the foreground to create a good color mix and contrast that attracts and delivers comfort to the eyes. This picture shows a photo enclosed in a frame hanging on a wall. The picture has the foreground, middle ground, and the background. On the foreground of the picture, we see a white wall where the photo hangs on. The white color of the wall suggests the presence of peace and absence of conflict in the picture environment. In the middle ground of the picture, I can see a photo frame decorated with a dull color. The dull color suggests calmness in the picture environment. At the same time, we can note the richness of the color on the photo frame, which defines the value of the enclosed photo. More so, we can see that the photo frame is wooden which defines the respect for traditions and equally, the value of the frame. Furthermore, it is clear that the photo frame has different layers that narrow to the inside, which shows the perfection of the author and

CHANEL IN CHINA Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

CHANEL IN CHINA - Research Paper Example As economy in China is rapidly growing, the Chinese who can afford luxury also increases. The country is considered as the third largest luxury market in the world, after the United States and Japan. This is the prime reason multinational companies of luxury goods extend presence of their products in the country. China is one of the most economically developed countries in the world. It has gained its momentum since the Chinese embraced economic transformation in the late 1970s. China has opened its market to foreign investors which attracted many multinational corporations (MNCs) to come and do business. The MNCs then become the engine of the country in its rapid economic growth that helped increase its participation in the international market. Due to global competition, many MNCs established themselves in the Chinese market mainly to seek for cost-reduction and new market. China became a favorite destination of foreign investors or MNCs because of fast investment return. The rapid economic growth opens more market opportunities but still provides cheaper but high quality resources and huge supply of inexpensive labor. This entices the idea of foreign investors to enter in the emerging market. ... One of the luxury companies that established a branch in China is the Chanel. Chanel with Mandarin name Xiang Nai Er, which means little more than fragrant is an international luxury goods company with over 200 boutiques worldwide. It is founded in 1909 by Gabrielle â€Å"Coco† Chanel, a famous haute couture which revolutionized women’s fashion and introduced timeless elegance and fashion. The mother branch is in Neuilly sur Seine, France. The company is one of the world’s preeminent fashions of the present genre. It offers a broad range of luxury products such as ready-to-wear clothes, make-up, fragrances, skincare, leather goods, fine jewelry and accessories. This paper will try to identify Chanel’s development of global strategic alliances, inter-company collaboration, and positioning for greater global competitiveness. Though MNCs such as Chanel have several strengths which include strong brand image, high quality products, and excellent management, th ey still need strategies to be able to compete in the market due to increasing number of luxury brands competing. Discussion Various business strategies are employed by companies especially MNCs in order to maintain presence, establish presence in new markets, and compete in their market segment against same products. In the case of luxury brand Chanel, its advantage may be its global presence for more than a century now, but this does not mean challenges are few. First off, Chanel like any other MNC that is new to China, needed strategic global alliance that will harmonize the market entry as well as reduce all possible risks that a foreign investor will go through. 1. Development of global strategic alliances Knoke (2009)

Education Problem in Korea Essay Example for Free

Education Problem in Korea Essay A mother gets a headache whenever she comes back home after attending mothers regular meetings, the purpose of which is to get some information about private instruction. Her children keep her as busy as a professional manager. She surveys popular newly opened institutes called hagwon, makes a group for private lessons, chooses instructors and pushes her children to study. When they are asked about their plans for the declining years of their lives, most are not saving for old age. They feel uneasy because they are not able to save money, so some mothers go to work to earn enough for extra instruction expense. Many husbands and wives argue about their childrens education. However, their children dont care about their parents troubles. The children regard it as the natural role of parents, because they are the kings or queens of the family, served by sacrificing parents from birth. Parents seem to allow their childrens complaining. Children dont appreciate their parents because they are not happy with their support. Sometimes they act like robots controlled by mothers orders. They dont have time to talk with family, to play with their friends or to get sufficient sleep. They always hurry to learn something. As for me, I also have anxiety about my daughters private education. There are moments that I want her to push to study a little bit more because I feel worried when I hear how many kinds of extra instruction her friends are taking. But I can calm down my selfish desire by looking at my exhausted daughter. I try to confirm that the most effective result of studying comes from self-studying with strong motivation. Most parents dont wait until their children ask them to help with their studying. Theyre never satisfied. For example, many Korean goose daddies decide to sacrifice their lives by themselves, not by the childrens demands, in spite of the struggle with loneliness after they send their families to a foreign country. These days, many ordinary families without sufficient finances are planning for their children to study abroad despite the huge cost. They probably need to squeeze their budget or even borrow the money. Are their precious sons and daughters going to thank their parents in the future? Will their parents be satisfied with their children later? I wonder how great their outcomes will be. In addition to problems within families, there are many side effects with private education at school, which are usually from the studying burden. They learn the material they need in advance in hagwon before they learn it at school. Many math teachers in middle school become upset while they are teaching theorems or concepts. Some students dont concentrate on the lesson because they are under a delusion that they already know everything. Actually, they cant solve even the easy and basic problems when slightly changed. What is the investment of the money and time for private lessons for? Math teachers say the incomplete knowledge spoils the students ability to think. In English class, there are several fluent students with native pronunciation gained in English speaking countries. However, sometimes teachers are upset when they are very quiet and never volunteer for the class because they dont want to be victims of cynical teasing from their friends. The students high-leveled from private education tend to be bored during class. Another big problem is about the students who have a kind of mental disease, some of who are extremely offensive and some who have abiosis without any interest in anything. Their attitude is usually caused by the pressure of studying and of too high expectations compared to their ability. Koreans all know that economic growth is based on educating for the future generation. Korea doesnt have enough natural resources, so we need to develop knowledge and skills. The government nowadays wants to increase autonomous high schools for competitive system to build up superior talents. But parents are not likely to reduce the private education. We hope the government listens carefully to what the citizens say. For instance, English teachers need small classes according to students levels in order to achieve the aim for English-speaking class. Parents and teachers dont want epoch-making policy, but just one step in the development of education policy. Korean parents need to remember this truth: their investment in children who dont have self-motivation might waste their money, their time and their energy. Id like to advise parents to give their children a chance to choose what they want, and to wait until they are eager to study what they need. Also, I suggest they should ignore their neighbors private education, not public education.

The Analysis of Body Language Intercultural Communications

The Analysis of Body Language Intercultural Communications Abstract With the international communication becoming closer,except the verbal communication in daily life, we may encounter many body languages. These body languages can express their mood or even substitute one sentence. Therefore, in order to understand the intercultural communication better, this dissertation first introduces the relationship between culture and language, then briefly explains what body language is and its function in intercultural communication, subsequently, briefly analyses the differences of the same body language in different cultures. At last, the dissertation suggests that when studying English language, one cant ignore the huge body language, it will be helpful with our English study. Key words: Language; culture; body language; intercultural communication I. Introduction With the international communication becoming more and more frequently, Chinese people may have many chances to get in touch with foreigners. They always use many body languages with their talk. It is a funny phenomena. Shakespeare said Theres language in her eyes, her cheek, her lip, Nay, her foot speaks. Indeed, these body language not only can make their word lively, but also express the speakers mood, or even substitute a sentence. What the body language means when they use for communication?This is the necessary knowledge of English study. Any kind of body language is formed on the foundation of culture. Without understanding the true meaning of a body language, it will embarrass or make mistake. Therefore, this dissertation will analysis the differences of same body language in the different cultures and suggest to study English on the premise of understanding their culture. II. Literature review 2.1 Culture and language 2.1.1 Culture The definition of culture is evolving as time passes. In the west, at first it was used to describe some ability of person which represent a form of act. Then culture used to describe the real achievement of a instructed person. And in 1952, a book of Alfred L. Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn named Culture. A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions was give a general definition based on more than 160 kinds of cultures definition which was identified by modern east and west academic circle. And in China, its meaning was that with the understanding of all phenomena of human social, govern the world with instructing and inspiring. In the Confucian concept, wen not only means word, but also refer to all the rules of etiquette and music in general. In ancient Chinese language, culture meant guiding people with ethics. Culture is a complex concept and changing with human social. However, the word culture is most commonly used in three basic senses: Excellence of taste in the fine arts and humanities, also known as high culture An integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that depends upon the capacity for symbolic thought and social learning The set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an institution, organization or group 2.1.2 Language Language is the important thinking and communicating tool of human being. With language people can keep and pass human civilization achievement. In general, any nation has its own language. It is a notable character of a nation and has long history. Language is closely related with thought. It is the carrier and exhibition form of thought. Language is a social phenomenon with stability and nationality. Though many animals can make sound to express their emotion or deliver message, these sounds are regular without change. Only person have language and can combine all the sounds that have no meaning to become a meaningful morpheme, then put these morphemes together in many ways to form utterance. Using infinite changing form to express infinite changing meaning. 2.1.3 The relationship between language and culture Culture and language are mutual dependence and can not be separated. Language is part of culture, it is the media of culture communication. We use language to communicate, and language is largely influenced by culture. The relationship between culture and language is on the foundation of nation. A nation produces language, at the same time produces culture. Edward Sapir thought that language can not exist without culture. The culture we talk about is social custom and belief. It can decide our life structure. Linguistician Palmer said that language faithfully reflects all the history and culture, game and amusement, belief and prejudice of a nation. As a part of nations culture, language reflects the nations visage, at the same time, language reflects the content of culture as form. Language is the important carrier of culture. Other carriers such as historical site, book, or painting, only show part or even a corner of culture. But language stores all the information of culture comprehensively. Language consists of voice, vocabulary and grammar. Vocabulary, especially the notional word, bear the important responsibility of carrying culture. Time passes, and many new words are coming into being, such as virtual floating, means netizens put their worries and secrets in the virtual bottle without knowing who will get it. All of these are anonymous. And kickback, the original of this word is that the International Olympic Committee will open an ethics investigation into Issa Hayatou over allegations the African football official took kickbacks from FIFAs former marketing agency. But these new words hardly possible become part of culture. Only those language fact that integrate into the bottom life deeply, chosen and washed out by history, enter the basic nation voc abulary is the sign of language affect culture profoundly. For example, Buddhism have been spreaded about 2000 years. Some words like free, retribution, disengagement, hell are coming from Buddhism. These words have already integrated into Chinese become part of it. Culture has effect on language semiotic system itself, language concept, thought and expression, and language learning. Nation culture is decided by the meaning of vocabulary. Different culture tradition and mentality have definitively function to it. Such as dragon, the western people have no favor to it, they thought it is monster, cruel person, stand for devil. But in ancient Chinese culture it stands for the son of heaven and the emperor, lucky and honorable. The reference content and way of culture are decided by the cultures person and persons culture. For example, Cantonese cant see snow for the whole year, so they do not distinguish ice and snow in concept. The northman say à ¥Ã¢â‚¬  Ã‚ °Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ £Ã‚ , and Cantonese say à ©Ã¢â‚¬ ºÃ‚ ªÃƒ ¦Ã‚ Ã‚ ¡. But the Eskimo who live in arctic pole always contact with snow and have a perceptive. There are more than 20 kinds of words used to describe different snow. As the carrier and express tool of thought, language promote the developm ent of thought, on the other hand, language is restricted by thought. For instance, Chinese say à §Ã‚ Ã‚ «Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ½Ã‚ ¦, that is à §Ã‚ Ã‚ « and à ¨Ã‚ ½Ã‚ ¦, looking into the physics function of à §Ã‚ Ã‚ « and à ¦Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ½. But in English, there is railway train, look into the move way of rail and track. To understand the culture of English countries is the important step of English study. The research of language and culture is divided into language culture and language in culture. So culture is divided into two part: big culture and small culture.(Bright, 1976) Here is a form: language Big culture other cultural phenomena Culture Verbal language Small culture Non-verbal language Body language is the important part of non-verbal language. Non-verbal language and culture are learned behaviour and social custom that rich in long history heritage. The relationship between both have these characters in someone like Samovar etals eyes: culture and non-verbal language can not be divided. Many non-verbal languages are the result of learning culture. The shaping and impacting of non-verbal behaviour are always decided by determinate culture environment. It is very important to understand the relationship between culture and non-verbal language. (Samovar etal, 1981) Samovar thought that through understanding the basic represent mode of some cultures non-verbal language, we can search peoples behaviour and attitude. Through non-verbal language mode can understand a sort of cultures value system. Through the research of non-verbal language can exclude the narrow ethnocentrism. The most realistic signification of researching the relationship between culture and non-verba l language in intercultural communication is to resolve the culture conflict in non-verbal language. People always do not realize the learning of their own culture, but very sensitive with other cultures non-verbal language and easily produce misunderstand. Worth the whistle, the culture conflict brought by non-verbal language is serious than that brought by verbal language. Because non-verbal language always is the expression of sensibility and emotion. Samovar put forward that to resolve the non-verbal language culture conflict in international communication should remember the follow three principles when understand the meaning of other cultures non-verbal language: 1. When pay attention to the behaviour of a non-verbal language can not ignore that there are manifold non-verbal language cooperative work in real communication. 2. Anyone can not list and describe all the non-verbal language in any culture. But if we can understand exactly the information of some usually used non-verbal language under the international communication environment, it will be helpful to understand the necessary information. 3. Only understand our cultures non-verbal language first, can we understand other cultures behaviour. Under international communication, to identify the message of non-verbal language should avoid modal or only notice superficies. Be sure to keep in mind that any non-verbal language does not appear lonely, nor deliver any message consciously. Pay special attention to that when study foreign language, international communication activity, and international research, for the need of communicating, studying and researching, people have to make a summation and generalization of the non-verbal language of the same country and the same language nation to sum up some representative non-verbal language. However, in real communication, people must find that the non-verbal language in the same country and nation are not just the same. Even in the same area, it is differ in thousands of ways between the people in different occupations, different age groups and different culture levels. Such as America which is famous for multinational immigrant living together, their non-verbal language are ver y hard to be consistent. So as the different English country, the differences are more further. III. Body language 3.1 Definition Body language is a way of communication that body movements which use head, eyes, neck, hands, arm, foot or other parts of the body to express peoples thought and emotions. Facial expressions, eye contact and other postures and gestures are the commonly used body movement. In a general sense of word, body language includes facial expression, in a narrow sense of word, body language only includes the meaning expressed by body and four limbs. The assortment of body language was advanced by Ruesch and Kees in 1956 according to the basic component of non-verbal language. It involves sign language, action language, and object language. The other assortment was advanced by M. Knapp in 1978 through the analysis of some pertinent researching and literatures. That are body motion and kinesics behaviour, physical characteristics, touching behaviour, paralanguage, proxemics, artifacts, environmental factors. Subsequently, Jensen advanced another statement: body motion and gestures, attitudes to ward time, attitudes toward space, general habits in communication. The research of human body language can trace back to Aristotle in Greek. The formally research was beginning from Darwin. In his 1872 book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals put forward that man and animals have many similar expressions. The systemic research of body language must come first Ray Birdwhistell. His 1952 book Introduction to Kinesics put forward the theory of kinesics. Made the body language become a coding system like verbal language to study the relationship between body movement and communication. Body Language of Julius Fast is a representative work that reflects the research result of body language. This book is known as the summary of the scientists research in the body language field. From then on, body language becomes a boundary science and produces new research result continuously. According to estimates, human body can make out more than 270,000 kinds of posture and movement. This is far more than the sound made out by human body. These postures and movements meaning are very complex. Some are definite and material as some are general and blurry. Some are used to communicate as some are used to self-express. Some are expressing emotion message as some are reflecting character and attitude. So the sort of body language is very complex. The body language classification method of Ekman and Friesen has important effent in non-verbal language communication educational circles. According to all the movements origin, usage and code, they divided human face and bodys continuous movement into five parts: 1. Symbolic movement: these movements have clearly meaning, such as the gesture express OK and victory. Symbolic movement always used to substitute verbal language. In general, they have distinct culture character. For example, the movement means suicide, in Japan, people use hand to simulate dagger to thrust the abdomen, and in America, people use hand to simulate a gun shot temple. 2. Illustrative movement: these kind of movements cooperate with verbal language directly to explain the meaning of the talking. For example, to emphasize a sentence, describe a thought, indicate a material, depict a space relationship, characterize a things rhythm and speed, portray a phenomena , describe a body movement, explain a sentences meaning, etc. 3. Emotion revealing movement: mainly through facial expression to show emotion or mood, of course the other part of body can also express these emotion. Express the emotion can repeat, exaggerate,deny the verbal language, or may be no relationship with it. Express the emotion always deliver the message of communication unconscious, but also can use it in communicating conscious. 4. Modulation movement: this kind of movement is used for maintaining or adjusting the talk in the face-to-face talk. It drops a hint that the speaker can keep talking, repeat again, explain further, speak fast or more lively, let other people have a talk, etc. In recent years, people pay attention to the research of the turn-talking in chat. Turn-talking means that telling the opposite side I want to talk; stopping the speaker changing the topic; asking the other side to give me a speaking chance; let the other side keep talking; telling the others that I have finish my talking and you can speak. The usually used movement is head and eye movement. 5. Adaptable movement: Ekman and Friesen divide it more further: 1). Self-adaptable movement: this kind of movement always happen on personally, such as, holding own hand, rubbing hand, grabing, scratching, clutching, nipping, whisking or gathering the cloth. In general, the emotion is more disconcerting, the pretty actions are more distinguished. Picking nose and wiping eyes belong to this kind. 2). Transformational adaptable movement: this kind of movement take place in the connect with other people. Such as, bringing or delivering, attacking or protecting, close or away. Leg movement can react that encroach, footsie or attack. Shaking hand or foot means fidgety that the person want to avoid talking. 3). Object adaptable movement: this kind of movement always relate to the using of material, such as smoking and writing. 3.2 The function of body language in intercultural communication As the necessary communication tool, body language has important function in intercultural communication. Bradford J. Hall(2002) summarized the mainly function of body language language: 1. Repetition: Body language can reinforce the verbal language by repeating the verbal message nonverbally, such as using a gesture, it can help the receiver understand the message easily. For example, when someone ask you where is the restaurant, you can point a certain direction when you say, the restaurant is north the library. Or we point to the question on the book we just ask. 2. Substitution: Body language can be used to replace some verbal language to deliver a certain meaning. When your friend meet a sad thing that make him cry, you can give him a hug. This is more powerful than any soothing words. 3. Contradiction: Body language sometimes can betray the speaker by sending contradictory message to the verbal language. The body language is often regarded as the powerful word than the spoken words. For example, we cant keep our face from blushing even say we dont nervous or we cant slow down our heartbeat if we are scared. And the teacher can find a student is wandering from the eyesight even though his eyes are staring the blackboard. So the body language is reliable than the verbal language sometimes. 4. Accentuation: It can force the power when you add a body language with your talk than only use verbal language. When you apologize to someone, if an apology show on you face, this can make your apology more conviction. In addition, body language can provide a complement to the verbal language. In some countries, you can up you thumb as the same time you give a admiration to your friends for his good performance. 5. Regulation: The body language also helps us to control the situation of our talking. For example, when we need a quiet, we can put our finger on our lip. IV. The analysis of the differences of the same body language in different cultures 4.1 The different meaning of the same body language in different cultures Here contrast some body languages that usually used but have different meaning. If you use a very awful body language, this might bring a badly result. 1. In China, up the thumbs means good to praise you are doing a good job, bravo and so on. It is same in many countries. If thumbs down means disagree, finish or youre game over. But in Australia, no matter it up or down is obscene. 2. Protrude the index finger means wait a minute in America, but in Australia it means one more beer. 3. Protrude the little finger means cowardly man in England as bet in America. 4. The V for victory or peace sign in America if made with the palm facing inward is taunting or sneering in England. It is very offensive to societys morals. 5. American people sometimes up head, palm facing down, index finger across the throat, it means Im full. I cant eat anymore. But it means decapitation in China. 6. When Chinese people communicating with foreign people, the most antipathetic movement is using index finger point the others casual. Indeed, the movement is in bad taste and impolite to western people. This is reproof and rebuke. 7. Chinese male like to put hands on other mans shoulder for a long time. And Chinese female frequently take other womans hand closely for long time. These shock the foreigners because they consider this gesture means homosexual. 8. When Chinese people receive or send a cup of water or a gift, they will use two hands to accept it to show appreciate and admiration. But American people dont care about whether use one or two hands. 9. When talking with American people Chinese like to put their hands crossed behind their back or into their pockets. But these gestures make the American think you are hiding guns in your hands. 10. Chinese may scratch their noses when feeling uncomfortable. This is confused the western people because in their culture this movement means Im telling a lie. 4.2 Some embarrassing examples due to misunderstanding of body language Under the same culture, people may have misunderstanding because of the body language, even the different culture. Culture difference in different countries, so the body language can express different meaning. If we do not understand the other peoples meaning, it will have misunderstanding and displeasure. For Examples: Tom is the manager of an American company in China. Recently, Li Lei, one of the Chinese staff makes a mistake at work. He is very upset about what had happened, so he comes to Toms office to apologize. Entering the office with smile. He says: I feel terribly sorry for the mistake. I am here to make a sincerely apology to you and promise that it will never happen again. When he said this, the smile always on his face. But Tom feels it is hard to accept and ask himAre you sure? Li says yes with smile. Tom is angry and saysYou dont look sorry at all. If you really feel sorry, how can you still smile? Li feels so embarrassed and does not know what to do. A Chinese student Wangdan and her friend, the American student Judy who studys in China were on the way to store. They saw a boy fell down on the ground. He tried to stand up while the surrounding people laughed. Luckily he was ok. Judy was worried but found Wangdan was smiling too. She was very curious and asked how could you laugh when someone else fell down. Why dont you help him to stand up and ask him whether he was hurt. Wangdan said, Because they know he was not hurt too much. But Judy still couldnt understand. She said, In my culture, if this was happen, we would do anything but laugh. The former examples are all about the smile. In daily life we usually smile, but in different culture, this ordinary movement can bring misunderstanding or some more serious results. When western people come across these situations, they will with solemn face to apologize or come to console the boy. Though smile means happy, it is the symbol for people in general, but in different culture, smiling in the communication are different. The western people think smile always means happy, high in spirits or think something is funny. But Chinese people often smile, because it not only means humours and satisfaction, also means embarrassment and protection, even a kind of evadable. So it confuses the western people, they say it is too hard to understand. In China, people sometimes use smile to eliminate embarrassment, also means never mind, and the person smile to self-mockery or play a joke. But if the affair is very serious, people will provide help but laugh out of court. So for the peopl e who do not know the meaning, this kind of smile will make them unhappy even produce antipathy. A Chinese student went to a American family and sent present to the child of this family,when he beckon to the little boy, yet the boy back off him. The hand movement is very abundant and with infective. Every gesture has its particular function. In the case, the Chinese student used Chinese gesture, which palm facing down and making a scratching motion with fingers to beckon. This is different in America that means to go away. When they let somebody to close up, their palm facing up or only move index finger. This is opposite to Chinese and may bring Chinese peoples repulsion. V. Conclusion After the briefly analysis of the analysis of body language in intercultural communications, we have a knowledge about the relationship between culture and language, and the influence of body language in the communication. The body language in our daily life is incalculable. Every one can use his body to represent himself. Body language is the same as verbal language to be the carrier of culture that may cause misunderstanding in the international communication because of culture difference. As an English major, to understand the culture of the target language is very important. Having the knowledge of body language will be helpful to us in intercultural communication.

Water in Architecture and Spaces

Water in Architecture and Spaces The paper focuses on how the presence of water – either as a feature or a function – enriches the design of public buildings, and how this relationship is perceived through sensory human experience. Four case studies are used. Case study one is the Roman bath complex at Bath, Avon; case study two is an early Modernist design of a glass pavilion by Bruno Taut; case study three is an example of a Post Modernist piazza in New Orleans designed by Charles. W. Moore; and case study four is the contemporary design of a thermal baths in Vals, Switzerland by Peter Zumthor. In each case there will be an analysis of the architectural design including aspects such as symmetry and balance, colour, texture, materials, form, and scale. Findings will include how water is used in the design space and its effect upon the human senses. The study expects to see a strong relationship between the presence of water and the surrounding design of the building. Furthermore, the study hopes to establish a difference in the relationship between the sensory experience of the two case studies where water is used as an aesthetic feature and has no practical function compared to the two baths where water is used to bathe in. The studies are ordered chronologically to enable clear identification of the evolving architectural differences between the ancient bath building, and the two twentieth century examples. Investigation aims to explore the potential of water as an instrument to aid the architects attempts at creating illusion. Aspects such as colour, and representation of form will be analysed in the two twentieth century examples. The study will culminate with the contemporary innovation and dynamism so supremely represented in the work of Peter Zumthor. In this fourth and most important chapter the work aims to identify how contemporary developments in architectural design – in comparison with the older case studies – expands and enriches the relationship between water and the human senses. Methodology The data for this study was collected through documentary research. Chapter one draws from Barry Cunliffes Roman Bath Discovered as a primary source and archaeological context.The baths went through several stages of development before they were abandoned: this study will use the simple plan of the first stage as an example to avoid any confusion. Because of the age of the case study it is not possible to replicate with certainty the exact nature of the sensory experience of using the baths. Therefore some suppositions had to be hypothetical based on the archaeological and architectural evidence used. Throughout the dissertation I will draw on Veronica Strangs book The Meaning of Water (2003) which provides a useful insight into the nature of the element in discussion. In the study of Bruno Tauts glass pavilion the sensory experience will also have to contain a hypothetical element based on documentary research as the pavilion itself no longer stands. For chapter four, internet sourc es were used in conjunction with journals and books to locate a firsthand account of the sensory experience of Peter Zumthors baths. As a fairly recent design of a relatively unwritten about architect it was difficult to locate a diversity of sources for the baths so the chapter will draw mainly from articles both from internet sources and from publications. IntroductionThe first chapter will look at the Roman Baths in Bath, Avon. It will explore the relationship between the architectural design, the materials used, and the human senses, focusing on the original plan of the baths in their first phase as depicted by Cunliffe (1971). This chapter will introductory to the study as it will bring into discussion aspects such as the relationship between the interior and exterior of the building as perceived through human sensory experience, and the atmospheric effects created by thermal waters which will be explored more thoroughly in the final chapter. It will evaluate aspects of the Roman design such as symmetry, colour, and decoration and how these might have enriched the bathing experience. Chapter two uses the case study of a glass pavilion, imagined by the poet Paul Scheerbart, and designed by Bruno Taut in 1914. The ornamental structure was designed to be exhibited at the Werkbund exhibition and was demolished soon after. The water feature is centrally placed, designed to reflect the changing light through the multicoloured glass panels of the surround. Its vision of a Utopian form of architecture using glass prisms provides a unique contrast to the functionally aesthetic Roman baths. It will be used to develop the idea of architecture testing the boundaries between the perception of interior and exterior and between public and private space. The presence of the water and its interaction with the light from the pavilions coloured glass means that these concepts are explored through sensory experience. Using relevant source material this chapter constructs an independent interpretation of Bruno Tauts design, focusing on its inner circular form and tiered space.In Chap ter Three the case study used will be the Piazza dItalia built by Charles W. Moore between 1974 and 1978 for the Italian community of New Orleans. The Post-Modernist design is characterised by Moores ironic interpretation of historical forms of architecture placed around a fountain in the shape of Italy. The study provides a useful contrast to the previous examples – it raises questions of how symmetry in architectural design affects the sensory perceptions. The focal point of the structure is the water feature which serves as a paradoxical unifier and separator of the experience. Furthermore, this example brings into discussion the concept of a more complex relationship between the human senses and water in architecture which will culminate in the final chapter. Chapter four concerns the thermal baths at Vals, Switzerland, designed by Peter Zumthor in 1996. This last and most important chapter aims to bring together aspects of the three previous examples through analysis of a contemporary design. The focus will be on Zumnors imaginative interpretation of the use of water in a natural environment. Research into his combination of technical innovation and sensitive perception hopes to establish how water can be used in contemporary architectural design to enrich the sensory human experience. Study will also focus on aspects of the design such as the careful attention paid to achieving balance and unity – through features such as the combination of different materials used. Features of the earlier case studies – such as the ambiguity of form in Moores piazza are discussed in light of Zumthors design of the baths interior. Finally, the study will assess how successful Zumthors example is in uniting traditional concepts in a contemp orary space. The Roman Bath Buildings at Avon, Bath. During the first century AD the Temple of Minerva and the baths were built at Bath over a thermal spring. As part of the building process an enclosed reservoir was constructed with the point at which the water poured into the drain being open with a flight of large steps from a platform above, allowing visitors to get close to the source of the water. The opening through which the water was accessed boasted an impressive archway creating the impression of the steaming water flowing through the mouth of a cave from the centre of the earth. (Cunliffe 1971, p.26). The original entrance hall boasted three massive windows through which could be seen the sacred spring and the altar beyond. The Great Bath would originally have been covered by a masonry vaulted ceiling also with large windows in its second tier plate xxiv cunliffe. Roman glass was translucent so the baths would not have been lit as well as an open air pool. This means that there would have been no views from the windows and little sun, resulting in minimal interaction between the experience of being inside the building and the conditions outside. It appears that the lighting of the establishment took second place to the organisation of space within the interior. Aside from the Great Bath the block contained two smaller chambers – the calidarium (hot room), and tepidarium (a warm acclimatising room) (Rook 1992, p.23-4), and another smaller swimming bath now known as the Lucas bath. (Cunliffe 1971, p.45). High vaulted spaces covered the thermal waters of the Great Bath to allow the steam to rise.As Macdonald says of this style of Roman roof, the chief key to the kind of sensory reaction or emotional response evoked by these buildings was the capacity of their concave shapes to induce an impression of expanding or rising hollowness.'(1982, p.176) The perception of space inside the baths would indeed have been altered as the bather left the small heated changing rooms and entered the area of the Great Bath. The warm bubbling water, with the cooler tranquil space above would have created two contrasting, yet complementary, sensory experiences. This design meant that the activity of the water environment could be enjoyed while the eye followed the path of rising vapours, travelling upwards to the still serenity of the domed roof. Allowing the eye to travel, while bodily remaining in the same place would have been an integral part of the relaxation process. The height of the ceiling would have also added to the ambience by causing sounds to echo. White limestone surrounded the bath which would have been smooth to the touch, and excavated evidence suggests that statues and other shrine-like images decorated the interior, with a fountain in the centre. It is possible to imagine how the continually changing state of the waters would have played upon the surrounding surfaces of the decoration, appearing to produce variations in colour and texture. As Veronica Strang says in her publication on water: The mesmeric qualities of water are of particular interest in considering sensory perception and the creation of meaning. Schiffman (1996:101) notes that the eye is automatically drawn to flickering or moving stimuli, and Gell (1992) and Morphy (1991, 1992, 1994) have shown that shimmering or visually exciting patterns can stimulate affective responses in many different cultural contexts. The shimmer and brilliance of water provide visual stimuli that are quite different from those of most objects. The visual interest of inanimate objects is gleaned by the eye actively tracing the form and colour and detail. With water (†¦) the eye is presented with a luminescent image it cannot hold. Instead, it must simply absorb all of the rhythms of movement and the tiny shifts and changes. (2003, p.51). As in contemporary swimming baths it is likely that the Romans would have enjoyed sitting beside the water to watch the play of light and absorb the atmosphere. From the remains found at Bath it appears that the design included viewing areas: the bath itself lay in the centre of an aisled hall 109ft long by 67ft wide, divided into a nave and two side aisles, or ambulatories, by continuous arcades framed with pilasters and entablature like those in the entrance hall. Each ambulatory was provided with three exedrae, a central rectangular recess with semicircular ones on either side, each framed by piers supporting arches in harmony with the main arcades. (Cunliffe 1976, p.45). These recesses, placed within a symmetric plan, would have provided places for people to sit and view the baths, while the continuous arcades would have led the line of vision around the interior, with the effect of there being no beginning or end. This continuity of form in the main area reflects its function as a unifying space in two ways: one, architecturally linking the four different areas of the building, and two, providing a public space befitting of the social function of bathing itself which brought people together. To aid the concept of bathing as a social and a sacred experience certain features were designed to appeal to the human senses. The floors and walls were decorated with mosaic patterns in different colours; contrasts of colour being common in Roman architecture (Macdonald 1982, p.176), and as part of the roof structures there stood tall columns in the decorative Corinthian style. As a sacred place, dedicated to Minerva, the healer, visitors were tempted to throw offerings into the sacred water of the spring in hope of their wishes being granted. The act of parting with money or something dear is a ritual made possible by the spring being situated beneath the main entrance hall. Excavations in 1878 by Mann discovered valuable offerings including pewter ornaments, a gold earring, and a pin with a pearl attached. (Cunliffe 1976, p.28). The presence of the water source provides an enticement to the baths within, and moreover the motion of the spring beneath would have created a rich bubb ling pool easily transforming the solid masonry and concrete walls into an aesthetically pleasing yet functional space. The architecture of the baths building appears to have been entirely devoted to the ritual of bathing itself which occurred inside. As Michael Wheeler says in Roman Art and Architecture (2001):you went to the baths in great numbers to talk to and about your friends and to work off the night-before. But one thing you certainly did not do; you never glanced at the untidy complex of domes and gables outside as you entered. It was the inside of the building that mattered, with its towering wall-spaces that stretched the minds of architect and sculptor and gave a sense of well-being to patron or client. (p.16). The experience of bathing was completed in a series of stages. The bathers first entered the dressing room to change, then after being anointed with oil proceeded to the series of main bathing rooms that varied in temperature (net ref. 1). In the calidarium bathers had their bodies scraped of oil and perspiration, before entering the frigidarium (cold room), where there was a small cold pool. The bather then entered the Great Bath. The Romans had no quantitative measurements for temperature, (Rook 1992, p.13) and despite the use of the walls as heating in conjunction with under floor heating there would have been relatively little control over humidity compared to contemporary bath complexes. Walls would have been damp from capillary moisture seeping up through the porous building materials and from condensation when warmer humid air came into contact with colder surfaces. This meant that the light and heat of the bath might have varied according to how many other people were using i t at the time. Certainly, these baths were designed to look their best when full of people – when the waters were moving and the steam rising and breaking in the space above. The baths were unique in that they provided a highly esteemed environment (baths were often owned by emperors) where personal ritual could be conducted in a public space – which only the presence of the water would allow. The baths were peoples palaces, providing a cultural focus where everyone could enjoy luxury on a regal scale every day. (Rook 1992, p.20). It is not difficult to imagine the many different smells – of different scented oils, steam, and hot bodies. The baths complex was a wealth of money, leisure and sensual experience, and the different materials used in the design reflect this. In the hall of the Great Bath lead lined the pool which met with the limestone beside it. This contrast of material was continued throughout in the broken forms of mosaic pattern interspersed with bronze objects such as a bronze sluice in the north-east corner of the main bath. (Cunliffe 1976, p.45).As expected there appears to be a close relationship between the design of the baths at Avon and the sensory experience of the spring water which was both a functional and an aesthetic feature.These two aspects appear to have been integral to one another and it will be interesting to see how the relationship between architectural design and the human senses alters in the next case study where water within the glass pavilion is present purely for aesthetic reasons. The Glass Pavilion designed by Bruno Taut for the Werkbund Exhibition, 1914. This case study looks at the interplay between water, light, and the senses in the early Modern Expressionist design of Bruno Tauts glass pavilion. The construction was commissioned by poet Peter Scheerbart who dreamed of a soaring glass architecture as a freeing up of architectural design. (Crasemann Collins 1962, p.12). It was a fourteen-sided prism roofed by a dome with blue, green, and gold glass panels which reflected the sky. (Ward 2001, p.65). Inside was a seven-tiered chamber whose walls were made of glass panels lined with glass mosaic, and a circular staircase – an unreal, unearthly flight of stairs that one descends as if through sparkling water (Pehnt 1973, p.76). On the lower level there was a rotunda with a pool and water cascading down layered steps so that the travelling sound of water would have echoed up to the highest tier. Taut claimed that the structure had been designed in the spirit of a Gothic cathedral. As Kenneth Frampton (1994) says, In effect a city crown, that pyramidal form postulated by Taut as the universal paradigm of all religious building, which together with the faith it would inspire was an essential urban element for the restructuring of society. (p.116). This comment is reflected in the use of water as a symbolic unifier in two ways. Firstly as a physical presence that mirrors the refracted light from the glass panels, creating a harmonic balance between floor and ceiling and a sense of unity within the structure, and secondly as something that all living things and people need and understand as an essential part of life – an essential ingredient if you like of Tauts Utopian ideal. When standing at the top of the water cascade it was possible to see upwards through the circular space in the middle to the arching space of the upper tiers beyond. This provided a visual contrast between the fluid downward movement of water and the arching pyramidal form of the roof above. Further visual delights were to be found in the wealth of colours used in the design. The cascade of water travelled over pale yellow glass, terminating in a recess of deep violet in which pictures were projected from a kaleidoscope. (Pehnt 1973, p.76.) The pres ence of the water served to unify peoples experience of the light into one visual component. Because this construction was not designed to be a permanent structure it did not need to meet the heavy physical demands of wear and tear. Thus it is more aesthetically pleasing than the roman bath building, which in many ways was more functional.The aisled hall of the baths had a basic rectangular form surrounded by solid stone masonry which gave the building a sense of permanence. In contrast, the circular form of Tauts skeletal structure would not have stood by itself: the upper hall was domed with different coloured glass panels set into reinforced concrete ribs and relied on the stiffening effect of the panels for stability. The aesthetic function of the arched roof has not changed since the time of the Roman baths at Avon; in both structures the opening out of the roof provides space in which the mind is set free to experience the sensual delights of the interior. Yet what differs in Tauts pavilion is the temporality of the structure. The height creates a paradoxical feeling o f temporary permanence – a brief feeling that one is almost liberated from the confines of earthly structures into the realm of the sky – while the presence of the running water beneath reminds the viewer that they are still on earth. In a 1928 essay on The Aesthetics of Architecture, Bruno Taut spoke of his love for clean smoothness (quoted from Ward 2001, p.56.) This philosophy is echoed in design of the pavilion where the light which is cast down through the glass surrounds hits the lower tier and is immediately washed away and diffused by the running water. As Strang (2003, p.50) says, the most constant quality of water is that it is not constant, but is characterised by transmutability and sensitivity to changes in the environment. Thus it is possible to picture the experience of the pavilion: the senses being continually stimulated by the changeability and echo of the water, the shifting light through the glass and its reflection in the water, even the smell of the humidity – all of which are simultaneously and subtly changing according to the nature of the conditions outside. It is not hard to imagine how a glint of sun might suddenly have transformed the pavilion into a thousand glimmering pieces. F urthermore, the seven tiers allow the spectator to control their sensory experience by moving as close and as far away from the changing light patterns as they desire. Differing levels which induced different experiences was not a feature of the design in the Roman baths but a parallel can be drawn between this aspect of the pavilion and the galleried hallway of the baths where the public could view the spring beneath. In the comparison between the two case studies so far, the ritual of bathing with its associated sensory delights becomes replaced by the ritual of aesthetic and sensory appreciation alone – without the water having any practical function whatsoever. It provides an essential focal point, detracting attention away from what would otherwise be a cold empty space. As Strang (2003) says of the properties of water: Physically, it is the ultimate fluid, filling any containing shape and, equally easily, shrinking and disappearing into the earth or evaporating into the ether. It has an extraordinary ability to metamorphose rapidly into substances with oppositional qualities, that is, the highly visible, concrete solidity of ice, and the fleeting dematerialisation of steam. Each state is endlessly reversible, so that this polymorphic range is always potentially present. (p.49). It is this changeability and potential of water that enables the pavilion to function as a dynamic public, yet personal, building. The tiered levels above allow room for private contemplation in a public space. It is clear that the function of the water differs to that of the Roman baths, however, the aesthetic experience in both fulfils a maxim quoted by Walter Gropius – that art is none other than the transformation of supramundane thoughts into objects of sensory perception. (quoted from Pehnt 1973, p.35). In terms of the baths at Avon and Tauts pavilion, what could have been an ordinary mundane experience – the act of bathing, the observation of an ornamental structure, – is transformed by the design of the building in conjunction with the presence of water and its effect on the senses into something extraordinary. The circular form of the interior creates a bubble where the spectator becomes isolated from the outside world; the changing light and the movement of water creating a sense of timelessness. As Simon Urwin (2003, pp.125-6) says: every body has around it what might be called a circle of presence that contributes to its own identification of place. When a body is in relationship with others, their circles of presence affect each other. When a body is put into an enclosure or cell its circle of presence is also contained and perhaps moulded. If this is true then the sensory experience of the individual in the pavilion would be shaped by the circular presences of the tiers and the water below culminating in a rich and lasting personal experience. In the roman bath building we see a fine contrast to this experience – where the functional aspect of the water would have caused Urwins circles of presence to be broken down so that public and private space become one. Indeed Taut himself stared that he demanded no distinction between public and private buildings. (quoted from Jencks 1985, p.61). As a final point for the case of the pavilion, it is worth considering the very structure itself and the space it contains. Its function – although not practical like the baths – is to provide an intermediary place between the exposure of the outdoors and the confines of the indoors, a space out of time. The use of different coloured glass creates a fascinating interplay between light and water while creating an enclosure without the feeling of being enclosed. This brings up interesting issues relating to the boundaries of interior and exterior which will be looked at in greater detail when comparing these studies to Zumthors work later on. The next case study explores an open air piazza the design of which provides a stark contrast to Tauts pavilion. The chapter aims to identify the evolving complexity of the relationship between architectural design, water and the senses – moving on now to an example built in 1974.

With particular reference to the novel opening, how does Jane Austen Es

With particular reference to the novel opening, how does Jane Austen present the role of women in pride and prejudice? Pride and Predujice With particular reference to the novel opening, how does Jane Austen present the role of women in pride and prejudice? Pride and prejudice was first published in 1893, this was a time when it just became acceptable for women to write and publish books. Pride and prejudice was set in the early 19th century in rural England. Pride and Prejudice is the story of Mr and Mrs Bennet, their five daughters, and the various romantic adventures at their Hertfordshire residence of Longbourn. I feel that Jane Austen successfully portrays the Age of Reason through her characters in Pride and Prejudice. I think this was the main purpose Jane Austen wrote this novel was to criticise society and the role of women in the 19th century. Jane Austen's novel surrounds the lives of middle class woman at the time; the female characters are often associated with marriage and money. Firstly the views of marriage and social class in the society of 19th century England were very different from views in modern society of today. In 19th century England there were two main concerns about marriage, to marry for wealth and stability. In the novel, Jane Austin stressed that marriage was not an act of love for most people in that age but and merely an act of survival, high ranking, and a place in society. Strong evidence which very well exemplify the general feelings against marriage for the period is the marriage of Charlotte Lucas to Mr. Collins. As she quoted:" I am not romantic you know. I never was'' yet she still agrees to marry Mr Collins. Charlotte is the main representative o... ...riage. Through the words of her novel Austen evidently criticises women in the 19th century I feel Jane Austen is a very brave novelist who confronted very controversial issues. Jane Austen presents woman as they are, she wrote the truth about how women were seen as weak and how the male population dominated everything. At the time image and social class was everything, and Jane Austen emphasises on this the whole time. Austen indicates through characters and literary devices how she disagrees with society. Austen mocks aristocracy through the presentation of Lady Catherine de burgh; she exaggerates her character to the full extent. Her arrogance is highlighted by the way she addresses other people. Jane Austen created effective characters like Elizabeth and Lady Catherine, they are crucial to the play as they both symbolize different types of woman.

The US Embargo on Cuba Essay -- Essays Papers

The US Embargo on Cuba I. Introduction In 1959, Cubareceived 74 percent of its imports from the US, and the US received 65 percentof Cuba’s exports. On February 3, 1962, the United States imposed a fulltrade embargo on Cuba, completely ending any type of trade between the twocountries. This embargo remains in effect today, more than four decades later,and has grown ! to be a huge center of debate and controversy (DeVarona 8).Opponents to the embargo argue that the embargo does nothing more than hurt theCuban people, while proponents argue that the embargo places pressure on Castroto repair Cuba’s mismanaged and corrupt government. Both the supportersand the opponents of this embargo have strong arguments and evidence to supportthese arguments. Without adoubt, Cuba’s current government is guilty of human rights violations,housing fugitives and terrorist groups, and robbing the Cuban people of wageswith its corrupt state-run economy. While it is inarguable that some actionagainst Cuba is warranted, and that the US economic embargo on Cuba haspositive intentions, the negative repercussions to the Cuban people andthird-party investors and countries greatly outweigh these positive intentions.! Therefore, it would be greatly ineffective for the embargo to remain in placeas the sole tool in promoting change in Cuba. II. Reasons that action toward Cuba iswarranted. There are a fewreasons that action towards Cuba was and is warranted. Since the beginning ofthe Castro regime, the Cuban government has stripped many Cubans of their basicrights and freedoms. According to Amnesty International’s 2002 report,Cuba is guilty of multiple human rights violations. Cuban people are beingimprisoned for peaceful exercises of their fundam... ...ristian Science Monitor. Online. 25 Sept. 1997. â€Å"LiftCuba Embargo, Carter Tells US.† BBC News Online. Online. 15 May2002. Officeof the United States Trade Representative. 1996 National Trade Estimate: TheArab League Boycott of Israel. http://www.ustr.gov Parodi,Francisco. â€Å"US Should Reestablish Relations With Cuba.† DailyBeacon. Online. 5 Sept. 1995. Roy,Joaquin. Cuba, the United States, and the Helm! s-Burton Doctrine:International Reactions. Florida: Univ. Press, 2000. Sierra,J.A. â€Å"The Timetable: History of Cuba.† Online. Aug 2002. http://www.historyofcuba.com Trump,Donald. â€Å"A Choice for Human Rights.† Miami Herald. Online. 25 June1999. UnitedStates. Dept. of State. International Information Programs. Cuban Libertyand Democratic Solidarity Act of 1996. â€Å"USEmbargo Towards Cuba.† No Castro. Online. http://www.nocastro.com/embargo/embargo.htm

Computer Architecture :: Essays Papers

Computer Architecture 1. There have been a lot of developments in microprocessors since the 286 chip. The 286 CPU are no longer sold and are very rarely found in commercial use today because of its running speed, which is between 10MHz to 20MHz. This processor has a 24-bit address bus, and is able to address up to 16 million different address locations. It also has two operating modes, which are real mode and protected mode. The real mode is basically for normal DOS operations and it uses only 8086 code (8086 was the previous CPU). When it was in protected mode the CPU is able to access beyond the 1mb address limit and employed its added features, which were intended for multi-tasking operations such as Windows, but this CPU is not powerful enough to carry out these multi-tasking operations. The 286 came with a bus width of 16-bit internal, 24-bit address, and 16-bit external, with an external speed of between 6MHz – 25MHz, and an internal speed of between 6MHz – 25MHz. The next CPU was the 386, this is also no longer produced it had a slightly faster running speeds which are between 16MHz to 40MHz. This CPU could carry out effective multi tasking operations. It also had a substantial improvement in both memory management and it had an enlarged instruction set. It is also the minimum CPU for running windows. It came in two types the 386 SX and the 386 DX. The SX had a 32-bit internal data path but it only had a 16-bit path between the CPU and the computer memory. The DX on the other hand had a 32-bit data bus between the CPU and the memory chips allowing larger data transfers so it had faster through put. It also was able to use external cache memory, usually about 64k, which also improved performance. The 386 came in two different types they both had a internal bus width of 32 bit, the SX had a address bus width of 24 bit, and a external bus width of 16 bit, its internal and external speed was between 16MHz – 33MHz. The DX however had an add ress and external bus width of 32 bit, its internal and external speed was between 33MHz–40MHz. The 486 were the next CPU, this is still produced, there was little change to the 386 instruction set, but the 486 ran at speeds between 20MHz to 100MHz.

Online Learning V.S Traditional Classroom Learning Essay

I think whether it is online learning or traditional class learning both should be taken into consideration when planning to further education. I personally did not consider the facts when I decided to further my education. I had started out in a traditional classroom but soon after realized it was not the right choice. It was hard to fully apply myself when I was attending a traditional classroom because I was a working wife and mother. Online learning and traditional learning will show that both of these are great options depending on who the student may be and which educational program the student has chosen. Online learning and traditional learning each have their merits and faults. Online degrees have become a perfect option for individuals who may not be able to enroll in a traditional classroom. When you compare the two learning classes, the biggest difference is that students studying online have the flexibility to attend classes at their own pace and time. In a campus-based classroom they require that students attend class a certain number of times every week, at specific times. Traditional class learning may not be the option for people who have children or work long hours. Learning online would be a better option for these people because they can make their own schedule for when they will attend class. Both online and traditional classes give students the opportunity to interact with other students and their professors. With a traditional classroom you can interact with students and professors face -to -face. In online learning there is no face- to -face interaction with classmates or instructors. Online learning interaction can consist of chat rooms, e-mail, main forums, and over the telephone. Traditional class students have a better advantage of understanding the materials because they can have that one –on- one time with the instructor face- to -face. It may be a little harder for online students to grasp the materials because they do not have that face- to -face interaction. Online learning and traditional class learning work assignments are similar and different in their own ways. In both online and traditional learning classes you still have assignments that have to be completed by a certain time. In the traditional class your assignments are done on paper and with online learning you have to submit your assignments on the computer. Also with traditional class learning one has the opportunity to present in front of their classmates, while online students do not have that option. They are only able to present their presentations to the instructors. In both classes you still have homework and you have to participate in class. Online learning requires you to participate and attend class a certain number of times but there is no specific times or days. They have the option to decide when that will be but with traditional class you have to attend class every day you are scheduled and participate every day. Earning a degree at a traditional college can be very expensive but obtaining a online degree can be a lot less expensive for students. Exceptionally less, but they offer students the same loan and grant benefits offered at a traditional college. Online schools and traditional schools offer the same financial aid packages. Students who attend a traditional class usually have to pay traveling cost and living cost. Online learning students do not have to pay these extra costs because they are learning from home and that requires no traveling. Also with online schools you do not have to pay for facilities like residence halls, dining halls, gyms and libraries. Most provide access to virtual libraries and some even have partnerships with local facilities. There are many similarities and differences between online learning and traditional class learning. The facts show that both are great options to consider, depending upon the person and his or her day- to- day schedule. One method to determine how well online learning and traditional class learning might work for you is to consider the benefits and disadvantages of both. Researching and planning ahead can help a person in deciding which would better fit his or her needs. I have found online learning to better fit my needs because I can make my own schedule concerning attending class. I am a mother and wife so I have many responsibilities and this option gives me time to take care of my household while still being able to obtain a degree at my own pace. Do the research to see which one is the right option for you at this time in your life. Most people think that their decision to go to college only affects them but it affects your family also. You have to still be able to do for your family and handle your business at home. I also suggest if you are attending a traditional college and it seems to be too overwhelming for you at times you should really consider trying the online learning. Becoming successful in life depends on the choices you make throughout life, whether they be good or bad choices. So choose wisely which learning class be it online learning or traditional learning is right for you and your family.

History of Childhood

The history of childhood is a subject of controversy. Since serious historical investigation began into this area in the late 1960s, historians have increasingly divided into two contrasting camps of opinion, those advocating â€Å"continuity† in child rearing practices, and those emphasising â€Å"change†. As there is little evidence of what childhood was really like in the past, it is incredibly difficult for historians to reconstruct the life of a child, much more the   â€Å"experience† of being a child. In so many ways, the history of childhood is a history that slips through our fingers. Few Parents have left written records of how they reared their children, and fewer still children have left us their story. It is largely because of this lack of evidence, and because the evidence that does remain – advice literature, journals and letters, are so open to differing interpretations, that historians have divided over major issues such as whether children were loved and wanted in the past, the way parents viewed their children, and the treatment they received. The first major works into the history of childhood were those of Philippe Aries and Lloyd De Mause,  Centuries of Childhood, and  The History of Childhood  respectfully. Both historians took a â€Å"progressive† approach to history, and concluded that the treatment of children by their parents and society have improved considerably throughout the centuries. Both paint a very negative image of childhood, and family life in the past. Lloyd De Mause went as far as saying that;   Ã¢â‚¬Å"The history of childhood is a nightmare from which we have only recently begun to awaken. †Ã‚  (1)   believing that; â€Å"The further back in history one goes, the lower the level of child care, and the more likely children are to be killed, abandoned, beaten, terrorized, and sexually abused†. 2)   Aries concluded that there was no concept of childhood as a state   different to adulthood in these centuries, and therefore, even if parents did feel affection for their offspring, they did not fully understand how to respond to the emotional needs of their children. This argument gained further weight with the mammoth work of Lawrence Stone on the history of the family and family relationships in the early modern period,  The Family, Sex and Marriage in England 1500-1800. Stone too focused on the â€Å"evolution† of the amily through these three centuries, arguing that the family changed from being of an â€Å"open lineage† structure in which family relationships were formal and repressed, to the â€Å"domesticated nuclear family†, which resulted in â€Å"affective individualism†. In the early 1980's, Linda Pollock in her influential, yet highly controversial work,  Forgotten Children : Parent – child Relations 1500-1900, harshly criticised all the arguments made by Aries, de Mause and Stone. From her intensive study of over four hundred diaries and journals, she argued that childhood experiences were not as grim as they suggest it was. She strongly denies that there were any fundamental changes in the way parents viewed or reared their children in this period;   Ã¢â‚¬Å"The texts reveal no significant change in the quality of parental care given to, or the amount of affection felt for infants for the period 1500-1900†. (3)   Pollock's work has received support from Rosemary O'Day and Mary Abbot, who both deny that childhood â€Å"evolved† considerably in this period. In recent years, it is this approach that is beginning to predominate, but Pollock et al are not without their critics. Therefore, as there are two so very different approaches to the history of childhood in the early modern period, attempting to determine just how methods of child rearing did change in the past is fraught with difficulty. In order to determine how something has changed, it is necessary to determine what it changed from, and there is no consensus of opinion as to how parents reared their children in this period. However, it is perhaps important to emphasise that it is not so much the structure of childhood that is difficult to assess, in the sense of describing what the children actually did, but the attitudes and values of the parents. It is difficult to determine whether these changed, if they did how they changed, and why they changed, and the outcome of these changes. Between 1500 and 1700, the actual structure of childhood changed little. In this pre-industrial age, England was largely agricultural. Amongst the poor, children were put to work at early ages on the farm, sowing seeds, chasing birds, and other rather unstrenuous activities. If they could not be made useful on the family's own farm, then they would be put to work elsewhere. This was a characteristic of both the town and the country, although in the towns, children were put to work a year to eighteen months earlier. This applied to both sexes, although boys were more likely to be put to work earlier, and girls to stay home a little longer to help their mother. Children who could be spared from the farm, or whose wages would not be missed, were often put to school, to receive a form of elementary education which would help them acquire the necessary literacy and arithmetic they would need in life. Most of these children, especially the girls, remained in school only for a short period, and would then be expected to work to help their family financially. Some children never attended school, but were taught by their mothers at home. Amongst the wealthier social groups, boys, and to a lesser extent girls, would be provided with a more rigid and higher standard education from the age of six or seven upwards. This could take the form of private tuition, a school education, or education in someone else's house. It has been argued by Stone, Aries and De Mause, that there was a growing awareness of childhood as a state different to adult hood in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. According to them, society was beginning to appreciate that children were not miniature adults, but were at a substantially lower level of maturity, and so had distinct needs from adults – protection, love and nurturing. Society was now becoming more aware of the importance of parental socialisation, that it was socialisation that largely determined the kind of adult a child would eventually become. Lawrence Stone and J. H. Plumb believe the emergence of this new characteristic can be traced in the artistic development of the period. Stone argues that in the middle ages, children were invariably portrayed as miniature adults in paintings, without any childish characteristics. However, into the sixteenth century, images of children began to acquire a distinct identity, and childish appearance. Plumb argues that from the late seventeenth century onwards, children can be seen playing, sketching and amusing themselves in portraits, which he suggests shows there was a definite concept of childhood emerging in this period. He also argues that the increasing availability of toys and literature especially aimed for children, shows a greater understanding and appreciation of childhood. It is certainly possible that children were seen in a different light in this period, considering the influence of the Renaissance and the Reformation on ideologies(an explanation that Stone touches upon and will be discussed in more detail later), but the evidence employed by both Stone and Plumb needs to be used with supreme caution. Art and literature may reflect to a certain degree the alues and attitudes of a given society, but they are also limited by the technological understandings of the age. It could be argued that the change in the portrayal of children was due entirely to the Renaissance influence on physical realism in portraits, and the development of superior artistic skills as a consequence. Also, as artists became more familiar with painting the human form, they may have been more comfortable in exploring o ther forms of presentation, moving away from the stiffness of some early portraits, to the more naturalistic settings of the eighteenth century. Similarly, the commercial availability of toys and children's literature may have been the product of a growing materialistic and technological world, not an indication of a greater awareness of childhood. Just because toys were not commercially available in the past does not mean that the need for children to play was not appreciated. Parents may have manually made toys for their children. Indeed, Linda Pollock argues that imaginative play was common through out this period. The literary development could likewise be due to the growing influence of the printing press which opened up new avenues for literature. There is no conclusive evidence that there was an increase in the  Ã¢â‚¬Å"concept of childhood†Ã‚  in this period. Linda Pollock, and Rosemary O'Day, strongly deny that there was, arguing that parents had always been†aware that childhood was different in kind from adulthood. †Ã‚   (4) Stone et al have argued that once society became aware that childhood was a distinct state from adulthood, this effected the relationship between parents and children. They argue that now parents were aware of the needs of children, they were more equipped to respond to them, and give their children the care and protection they so desperately needed. Both Ralph Houlbrooke and Lawrence Stone argue that during the course of the seventeenth centuries, families became more openly affectionate. They see the decline in observances such as the â€Å"blessing† as evidence of a more loving family relationship. The â€Å"blessing† was considered to be important in what it symbolised about the inferiority of children to adults. Children were expected to seek their parent's blessing every morning and night. Even in adulthood, children were expected to ask for this blessing every so often. There were also other customs to remind children of the respect, duty and obedience they owed their parents. Boys for example, were expected to take off their hats in their parent's presence, and allegedly girls were expected to kneel before their mother. The Countess of Falkland for example, knelt before her mother even in adulthood, and even though she had obtained a higher social status than her mother through marriage. Ralph Houlbrooke argues that in the seventeenth century such practises were declining. The â€Å"blessing† he says was replaced with a â€Å"goodnight kiss†, and the other customs relaxed. He believes that the increased intimacy in letters between parents and children in the seventeenth century are firm evidence of a growing affection and intimacy. He claims that parents were now using phrases such as â€Å"my dear child† or â€Å"my darling†, instead of the colder ones of â€Å"child† or â€Å"son, daughter†. However, again this evidence needs to be treated with caution. In this period, society was becoming increasingly literate, especially amongst the wealthier social groups, and a greater depth of education may have meant that individuals were now able to express themselves easier. It must also be remembered that the English language itself was going through a transition at this time, greatly benefitting from the Renaissance emphasis on the vernacular. Lawrence Stone sees the decline in the customs of swaddling and wet-nursing from the late seventeenth century and particularly into the eighteenth, as a further indication of a growing affection. However, again, this depends on interpretation. It was not for any abusive or oppressive reason that parents swaddled their children, but because they genuinely believed that it was for the child's benefit, in that it prevented the child's limbs from growing crooked and deformed. Arguably the decline of this practice was due to an increased scientific understanding of the human body, rather than an increase in parental affection towards children. Also there is no solid evidence that wet-nursing declined in the seventeenth century. Indeed, for much of the eighteenth century, wet-nursing continued amongst the nobility and gentry. Admittedly it was increasingly the subject of attack, as puritans in particular believed that all mothers should breast feed their own children, but that this practise continued in aristocratic circles (it had never really been a custom amongst the poor) well into the nineteenth century, it cannot be used to illustrate a growing affection between mothers and children. Lawrence Stone argues that one of the reasons why parents and children were emotionally distant in the early part of this period, was ecause of the high infant mortality rate. He argues that parents were reluctant to invest love and care in their children, because of the pain losing them would cause. However, Linda Pollock identifies a flaw in his thesis. She argues that if this was the case, then one would expect the indifference towards children to have prevailed as long as the death rate. Stone puts forward that parents were becoming closer to their children in the late seventeenth century, where for some pars of the country such as Devon, more children were dying in this period than had done in the sixteenth century. Pollock argues that contrary to reducing parental emotional investment, the high death rate only served to heighten their anxiety in times of illness, and increase their level of care. However, Lawrence Stone does not believe that all the consequences of a growing awareness of childhood as a distinct state from adulthood, had a positive effect on the relationship between parents and children. He suggests that with the awareness that behaviour depended on discipline, parents took their duty as disciplinarians more seriously. He claims that whipping and flogging now became common place in an attempt to instil morality in their children. He also attributes this development to the Protestant Reformation. He argues that Protestantism emphasised the notion of Original sin, and contrary to Catholicism, did not advocated that the salvation of children could be obtained by baptism. Protestants argued that faith alone determined salvation, and therefore, for a child to be saved, faith was essential. This led to a decline in the importance of baptism, and increasingly parents delayed the ceremony, for days, weeks, or even months. There was now added pressure on parents to ensure that their children fully comprehended the basics of Christianity, especially their own sinfulness, and need for repentance and salvation. This possibly increased the importance of the mother as teacher, and arguably created the potential for a greater intimacy between mother and child as they spent more quality time together. However, Sather argues that following the Reformation, the relationship between parents and children became characterised by   harshness and cruelty, as physical punishment became the norm, especially amongst Puritans. He who spareth the rod hateth his son† was universally repeated. Undoubtedly this theoretically sets the scene for a darkening of childhood experience. However, although the Reformation may have encouraged a harsher disciplinary role of the parents, as always, it is necessary to bear in mind that theory does not always convert into practise successfully. It is certainly possible that purit ans treated their children harshly in this period, tyring to get them to conform to their notions of godliness, but it must be remembered that for most of this period puritans were a minority, and a rather unpopular one at that. It was they who predominantly wrote the â€Å"conduct-books†, advising parents on how to rear their children, and although some historians such as Stone have taken their contents as evidence of a harsh attitude towards children, it is necessary to remember that   conduct books state how things ought to be, not how they are. Admittedly there were parents who did physically punish their children. John Aubrey, a contemporary of the seventeenth century, stated that harsh physical correction was rife, and that â€Å"the child perfectly hated the sight of his parents as the slave his torturer†, but this is highly debatable. It is likely that if children were abused in this period, the abuse was more likely to be inflicted by the children's employers who abused their powerful positions. There are numerous accounts of young boys and girls having been physically abused by their masters. However, it is significant that many parents on discovering this abuse, issued a suit against the guilty person, suggesting that such treatment was far from socially acceptable. Parents wanted their children corrected, and arguably would not have opposed to a physical chastisement if essential, but did not want, or approve, of excessive correction. That physical punishment existed, cannot be taken as evidence of increased parental harshness towards children. It is clear from several journals that parents who did feel the need to physically punish their children, were often deeply troubled by the incident, and if possible, preferred not to inflict physical pain on their child. Also, there is little evidence for Stone's theory that parents saw their children as innately evil, and thus needed excessive disciplining. Indeed, considering that writers such as Thomas Gataker had to continuously press the point that it was â€Å"an idle concept† to suppose that â€Å"religion and godlinesse is not for children†, suggests that most parents did not accept the belief, even if it was widespread amongst puritans. In all likelihood, most parents took the view of John Locke, that children were morally neutral, and that it was up to them by both love and appropriate correction, to bring out the good in their nature. Another change which it has been argued came about partly because of the Reformation, was the â€Å"educational revolution† of the sixteenth century. Certainly as Protestantism was the religion of the â€Å"word† both printed and preached, a higher degree of literacy was needed to read the Scriptures, and intellectual training in order for the people to comprehend doctrinal issues. Also, following the Dissolution of the monasteries and chantries, the educational provision made by these institutions ceased. Thus, if children were to be educated, schools had to be refounded, which is largely what happened in the reign of Edward the Sixth. This movement was also due to the Renaissance, which increased the value of education, especially amongst the gentry. With the Renaissance came ideals of gentility, advocated by Castiglione and Thomas Elyot. Education was seen as a prime requisite of gentility, for not only did it cultivate the mind, but it distinguished gentle persons above the poor, and justified their privileged positions. Not surprisingly then, with such a high regard being attached to education, rich parents, who perhaps were not entirely literate themselves at the beginning of this period, increasingly ensured that their sons had a decent education. Therefore, towards the end of the sixteenth, and especially into the seventeenth century, it became common for the wealthy to send their sons to the new grammar schools. If they were particularly wealthy, they would employ a tutor steeped in classical knowledge to educate their sons. That parents sent there children away from home at early ages has been taken as evidence of their indifference, but in all likelihood, when parents sent their children away, they believed it was in the best interests of the child. Ilana Ben-Amos argues that parents would only part with their children when it was absolutely essential. In the   early seventeenth century for example, it was only after James Fretwell, who was then only four years old, came home weeping because he could not manage the distance between Sandal and Yorkshire every day, that his father out of concern for his welfare put him to lodge with a widow in Sandal. Even then, the child came home on Saturdays. It can also be seen that attitudes towards female education amongst the wealthy also changed in this period. In the Renaissance years, it is arguable that the education of women was encouraged. Thomas More himself said that â€Å"I do not see why learning ay not equally agree with both sexes†, and the period produced a number of learned women; Mary and Elizabeth Tudor, Lady Jane Grey, and even Mary Stuart. Antonia Fraser argues that during Elizabeth's reign, there was a silent pressure on wealthy men to have their daughters educated. If they were to attend court without having some knowledge of Latin and the Classics, they would comp are unfavourably with the intellect and knowledge of the Queen, and would thus not create a favourable impression on the men they were expected to â€Å"secure†. Also, with there being a female monarch who was renowned as a scholar, it would be rather unmet to press the point that such a sphere was a man's preserve. However, with the Queen's death in 1603, and the accession of a man, such opinions were able to surface, and there was an increasing desire to exclude females from learning Latin and the classics. This was given impetus by the attitude of the sovereign himself. When King James was presented with a learned woman, he rather sarcastically remarked, â€Å"but can shee spin ? â€Å". This gave no incentive for the great families of England to subject their daughters to an expensive classical education, which many believed they had not the intellectual capacity to understand, and anyway would serve them no useful purpose in life. As the seventeenth century wore on, the difference in the educational expectations of the sexes became more marked. Girls were virtually excluded from grammar schools, and the notion of the â€Å"accomplished woman†, which was to play such a prominent part in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, gained a whole new lease of life. Parents were now encouraged to have their daughters educated in those subjects deemed suitable for girls – sewing, knitting, music, and French. Over the course of the seventeenth century, schools for girls flourished, and were dedicated to educating girls in these increasingly regarded female traits. Stone argues that the end of the seventeenth century saw a more humane treatment of children being adopted, but arguably this was not the case for aristocratic girls. Physical deportment was becoming increasingly important. The corset, which had long been in existence, now became regarded as essential, and the eighteenth century saw the development of other techniques to help create the perfect figure, such as stocks and backboards. Stone argues that one of the signs of a growing affection between parents and children, was the decline of parental control of their children's marriages, but if this was the case with boys, the marriage of girls was still often tightly controlled. In concluding then, it can be seen that trying to determine to what extent there were important changes in the way that children were reared in this period, is fraught with difficulty. The conclusion drawn, depends to a large degree on the approach adopted. Those historians such as Linda Pollock who advocate â€Å"continuity†, would argue that there were no fundamental changes in the way that parents treated and reared their children in this   who advocate â€Å"change†, would argue that there were important changes in these years. They would argue that there was a growing intimacy and affection between parents and children, a growing concern for the latter's welfare, and although the Reformation initially introduced a period of increased severity, the general trend was the improvement of the treatment of children. Certainly there were changes. There was an increased importance placed on education; the increasing segregation of male and female spheres within education; children were maintained at school longer; apprenticeships were lasting longer; there was an increase in the importance of early religious instruction; child baptism lost it's immediate   significance; swaddling becoming less widely used, and into the eighteenth century there was a decline in the practice of wet nursing. However, these changes are largely external changes. They tell us little about the way the â€Å"experience† of child rearing changed, if it did, during this period. Arguably, the more fundamental aspects of child-rearing, such as whether or not there was an emergence of a â€Å"concept of childhood† in this period, whether there was a growing intimacy between parents and children, and whether or not parental discipline became more severe, can only be speculated upon.